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Women in Combat: “Mistress of Animals” in Luristan Iconography

The so-called “Luristan Bronzes,” a distinctive collection of metal artifacts dating from ca. 1300 to 700 BCE, originate from the present-day provinces of Lorestān and Ilām in western Iran (Overlate 2005: 9-10). These objects entered the art market in the early 1920s and spread to museums and collections worldwide. The “Luristan Bronzes” have since become the subject of numerous studies and led to the publication of valuable catalogs by  Potratz (1966), Moorey (1971), Amiet (1976), and Muscurella (1988). These studies serve as the foundation for the classification and comparative analysis of these collections, as well as their chronological categorization. However, the vast number and widespread distribution of these artifacts worldwide have, to date, impeded comprehensive and extensive investigations. Additionally, several critical questions remain unanswered, particularly regarding these objects’ origins, functions, and the societal structure of the communities that produced them.

In early 2023, I was awarded a generous grant from the Fyssen Foundation, France, for cognitive studies. This funding supported my project to explore gender and power dynamics in the Iron Age society of Luristan, through a semiotic approach, contributing to a deeper understanding of the cultural and social complexities of this ancient culture. The primary focus was the study of Luristan Bronzes housed at the Ashmolean Museum (Oxford, GB),  British Museum (London, GB), Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon (France), Fitzwilliam Museum (Cambridge, GB), and National Museum of Denmark (Copenhagen). Offering a broader perspective on the artistic and cultural expressions of the region, this grant provided a unique opportunity to deepen the understanding of human representations, primarily women, across various Luristan objects. This blog post is dedicated to providing a concise report and presents the preliminary results of this extensive ongoing study.

Women Represented on Luristan Bronzes

The large corpus of “Luristan Bronzes” encompasses a diverse range of objects, including utilitarian, ritual, and votive items as well as jewelry, which hold significant cultural and symbolic value and further highlight the artistic and technical sophistication of Luristan metalworkers (Haerinck, 1988; Muscarella, 1988). These objects are decorated with sophisticated motifs and iconographic style. The characteristic style in which humans and animals are represented, and the composition of motifs on Luristan Bronzes distinguishes them from artistic representations at other sites across Iran and its adjacent regions. The evolution of this iconography can be traced from simple naturalistic themes to more sophisticated and fantastic creatures on these objects (Muscarella, 1988: 125- 126).

A distinctive feature of Luristan iconography is the prominent depiction of women in various scenes. These scenes portray women both in traditionally feminine roles or in scenes that are conventionally interpreted as masculine. The most outstanding scene is the depiction of women in the so-called “Mistresses of Animals”. This motif underscores the central human figure’s importance and power in overcoming or controlling flanking animals or creatures. Since the theme of such combat scenes is typically associated with male figures in ancient southwest Asian art thus the theme of Mistress of Animals in Luristan iconography is exceptionally rare. However, this theme remains an underexplored subject in existing scholarship on Luristan iconography. The study seeks to establish a framework for interpreting the symbolic and ideological significance of the unique “Mistress of Animals” theme depicted on Luristan pins by examining their iconography, thematic variations, and ritual contexts.

Mistress of Animals”  Depictions on Luristan Pins

The Depiction of the “Master/Mistress of Animals” is one of the key points highlighted in almost all major studies concerning Luristan iconography (Potratz, 1966; Moorey, 1971;  Amiet, 1976; Muscarella; 1988; Porada, 1969). Female figures depicted in these scenes are features with exaggerated facial features, such as prominent eyes, an elongated nose, and small ears. Spiral coils of hair often frame their faces, accentuating their stylized appearance. Most are depicted wearing horned hats, a common indicator of divinity or elevated status in the iconographic repertoire of Southwest Asia. Their genders are explicitly represented, characterized by bare breasts, and pronounced lower-body feminine features. In some instances, an enlarged abdomen is depicted, potentially indicating pregnancy, while others are occasionally portrayed in squatting postures, symbolizing childbirth.

In terms of composition, these female figures are typically positioned at the center of the scene, either squatting or standing, flanked symmetrically by animals at their sides, creating a balanced linear symmetry. The scenes are enclosed within circular or square frames, although unframed compositions are also observed. However, despite the overarching similarities, notable differences exist in the composition of the scenes, including details, and motifs or symbols associated with them. Based on their distinct visual elements, the women representations on Luristan pinheads are classified into four thematic categories. These elements such as body posture, spatial composition, and the relationships between humans and animal figures served as a coded language reflecting the social significance and their agency in Luristan. 

I. Figures Depicted in Symmetrical Control/Combat with Animals

The central human or sub-human figures in this theme are typically flanked by animals, which include felines, such as lions, or gazelles/antelopes. These scenes may be enclosed within frames or, in some instances, left unframed. However, various examples of these pins exhibit distinct iconographic and figurative characteristics, probably reflecting variations in artistic style and regional or cultural influences. 

The first pin in this category is housed in the British Museum (123299) (Moorey, 1974: PL. XIIIb). The scene shows a central figure, standing in a frontal position. Its body is decorated with horizontal grooves, likely to represent a garment with a girdle. The figure’s arms are symmetrically raised, grasping or interacting, possibly, with antelopes or goats, standing on either side. These animals are integrated with surrounding floral or geometric shapes, such as rosettes or circular patterns, likely serving as both decorative and symbolic elements. The figure is shown standing on a Luristan-style lion mask. The entire scene features a circular frame, decorated with a repeated, rope-like, or braided motif.

Some scenes of this category feature a central nude female figure with clearly defined breasts. It has five to three parallel lines, making a girdle encircling the waist, similar to the openwork pinhead at the Ashmolean Museum (AN.1951.276) (Przeworski, 1940: 263, Pl. LXXVIIIb; Moorey, 1971: 202: Pl. 56.346). The stylized body of the figure is rectangular, with indistinct arms and legs. She grasps the front forelegs of two flanking lions, depicted in a rampant posture. The central figure is positioned atop a simplified animal head, while, unlike the previous example, the scene is left unframed (figure 1.a). The central figure, on another pin at the Ashmolean Museum (AN.1965.800) (Moorey, 1971: 205, fig. 350), displays similar facial features, a horned headdress, and a standing posture. However, there are minor differences: the nude body is shown with emphasized lower-body feminine features, it lacks the girdle around the waist, with an elongated abdomen indicating pregnancy. It is shown grasping the forelegs of two lions and the entire composition is enclosed with a rectangular frame (figure 1.b).

On a disc-headed pin, housed in the British Museum (BM 132900) (Moorey, 1974: Pl. XV.A), a female figure is rendered in low relief. The central figure shows similar facial features,  including prominent eyes and a schematic or stylized facial structure as on the openwork pins. However, her distinct headgear or hairstyle, which forms an arch-like motif, may signify her divine status or a symbolic association with higher powers. The figure’s midsection includes a curved or rounded feature, possibly emphasizing the abdomen, which might symbolically indicate pregnancy or fertility. The figure’s arms are outstretched symmetrically, each hand gripping the neck of a flanking animal, possibly lions or composite creatures.

Fig. 1: Pinheads showing figures depicted in symmetrical control/combat with animals (© curtsey of Ashmolean Museum; photograph taken by the author); a) Ashmolean Museum (AN.1951.276); b) Ashmolean Museum (AN.1965.800) (© curtsey of Ashmolean Museum; photograph taken by the author)
II. Figures Depicted in Symmetrical Holding Converted Animals

The central figures in these scenes are positioned either standing or squatting in the central focal point of the scene, holding two lions in converted positions at their sides. The majority of these scenes are enclosed in rectangular frames. The central figure on the pin at the Ashmolean Museum (AN.1951:283) (Przeworski, 1940: 253, no. 19, pl. LXXVIC; Moorey, 1971: 206) is depicted with a stylized elongated body, with prominent breasts (figure 2. a). Its elongated arms are shown symmetrically extended to grasp two beasts, likely stylized lions, depicted in an inverted position on either side. The next pin, at the Ashmolean Museum (AN.1965.807) features a female figure with very similar characteristics (figure 2. b). Although her torso is decorated with an incised woven pattern, which appears to represent her clothing, her prominent breasts are discernible beneath it. Her feet are rendered in a simplified paw-like form, and similarly, her outstretched arms grasp two felines, likely lions, in an inverted position. Pinheads representing similar scenes are also housed in the British Museum (135976), but with differences in their details. The female figure on a pinhead housed at the Metropolitan Museum (figure 2. c) is depicted naked featuring stylized breasts and lower feminine attributes. Its prominent characteristic is the headdress in the form of exaggerated antelope or goat horns and ears. Central figures with similar large antelope/mouflon horned headdresses are also published by Porada. She suggests these figures represent a pictorial resurgence of Iranian nature demons, whose origins can be traced to the Elamite art of the late second millennium BCE. This interpretation is supported by the depiction of a demon with mouflon horns on the stele of Untash-Gal (Porada, 1964: 23–24, Pl. V.2).

Fig. 2: Pinheads showing figures depicted in symmetrical holding converted animals; a) Ashmolean Museum (AN.1951:283) (© curtsey of Ashmolean Museum; photograph taken by the author); b) Ashmolean Museum (AN.1965.807) (© curtsey of Ashmolean Museum; photograph taken by the author); c) Metropolitan Museum (1988.102.9) (© curtsey of Metropolitan Museum; photograph taken by the author)
III. Figures Depicted in Dual Postures Holding Inverted and Control/Combat Flanked Animals

The central scene in these pinheads is similar to that of the previous group, depicted in a frontal posture and holding two stylized animals, felines or lions, in an inverted position. The distinctive feature of this category is the crescentic frame, terminating in stylized lion heads at the top, often with gaping jaws.

The central figure in the pinhead at the Ashmolean Museum (AN.1965.799) (Moorey, 1971: 205, fig. 349) is shown wearing a trefoil crown. Its feet are depicted in animal-like paws, and its arms symmetrically grasp two stylized animals, lions/felines, in an inverted position (figure 3). This central scene is framed within a crescent made of curved bodies terminating in stylized lion heads at the top with gaping jaws. A similar scene on a pinhead at the Adam Collection features a nude female figure wearing a girdle at the waist and a horned headdress (Moorey, 1974: 123, no. 96). A comparable scene represented on another pinhead in the same collection shows a standing figure with a notably large belly which likely represents pregnancy. The crescent-shaped frame of this pinhead terminates in goat heads adorned with crescent horns (Moorey, 1974: 123, no. 97).

Fig. 3:  Pinhead showing figures depicted in dual postures; holding inverted and control/combat flanked animals;  Ashmolean Museum (AN.1965.799), (© curtsey of Ashmolean Museum; photograph taken by the author)
IV. Figures Depicted in Birth Scene Flanked by Gazelles

The fourth category of scenes depicts squatting female figures engaged in the act of birth-giving to human or animal creatures. These females are frequently portrayed naked, with emphasized breasts and, in some instances, pregnant bellies. These females also are shown wearing horned headdresses or composite crowns.  A rare, excavated pin of this group is reported from Surkh Dum (1573) (Schmidt et al., 1989: 271, pl. 185a), and is now housed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art (43.102.1). The squatting female is shown en face with her legs spread apart, with emphasized breasts and a rounded belly. She is holding two horned animals identified as antelopes or gazelles, whose curved bodies frame the scene(figure 4.a). A nondescript thin unit, at the bottom, connecting the frame to the pudenda appears to symbolize a human or animal newborn,  suggesting childbirth (Muscarella, 1988: 125).

Another squatting female figure is represented on a pinhead at the Ashmolean Museum  (AN.1965.806) (Moorey, 1971: 204, Fig. 348). While the scene on this pinhead shares similarities with the previous one the squatting figure is shown with prominent lower feminine features. She is shown squatting on the head of an animal with large ears. The animal’s face is left blank, possibly representing the stylized head of an antelope or gazelle. The figure’s hands and feet are depicted in the form of paws (figure 4.b). Unlike the common scenes in this category, this figure is enclosed within a rectangular frame. Her outstretched arms, sharply bent at the elbows, rest on her bent knees while holding the parallel sides of the frame. To the right of the figure, an “S”-shaped motif fills the space, adding further detail to the composition

Fig. 4: Pinheads showing figures depicted in the birth scene flanked by gazelles; a) pin, excavated in Surkh Dum (1573), housed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art (43.102.1) (© curtsey of Metropolitan Museum; photograph taken by the author); b) pin housed at the Ashmolean Museum (AN.1965.806) (© curtsey of Ashmolean Museum; photograph taken by the author)
Discussion and Conclusion

Through an analysis of iconographic elements and thematic variations of the representation of the “Mistress of Animals” motif of about 35 Luristan pins, this study uncovers the multifaceted roles and elevated status attributed to women in these artistic depictions.

The depiction of women engaged in combat with powerful animals, such as lions or composite creatures, on par with men, stands in contrast to the iconographic traditions of Mesopotamia and other regions of the Iranian Plateau. In these regions, the central figures in combat with flanking animals or mythical creatures are typically priest-kings, kings, and divine male figures, or male mythical creatures, as exemplified by Bronze and Iron Age Mesopotamian motifs, associated with the Gilgamesh narrative, or in later periods, Achaemenid kings portrayed in combat with lions or holding them in inverted positions. The inclusion of women in such roles within Luristan iconography, however, suggests a deliberate association between power and femininity, or their active role in power dynamics, alongside men in Luristan society, thereby challenging conventional androcentric interpretations.

Female representations on Luristan pins diverge significantly from earlier or contemporary iconography in Mesopotamia and Elam, where women are often depicted in traditionally feminine roles. In these contexts, women are frequently shown with emphasized feminine features, holding their breasts, breastfeeding, engaging in prayer, or playing musical instruments. In contrast, the female figures in Luristan iconography exhibit distinct characteristics. For instance, in birth-giving scenes, women are depicted giving birth to specific creatures, such as stylized animals, or, as in the case of a disk-shaped pinhead in the David-Weill collection (Amiet, 1976: Fig. 189), giving birth to a male figure. In these scenes, central women are in combat/controlling flanking lions or gazelles, while giving birth. These depictions depart from conventional portrayals of fertility and motherhood, suggesting a more symbolic or ritualistic significance.

In summary, these representations likely depict mythological or ritual figures with elevated social or religious significance, rather than ordinary women. The intricate craftsmanship and unique personalization of the pins underscore the artisans’ intentional efforts to encapsulate the ideological and symbolic meanings tied to these female figures. By presenting women in roles traditionally associated with men, such as combat or control, these depictions offer a nuanced perspective on gender dynamics in Luristan society, emphasizing the ritual authority and symbolic power ascribed to women.

Acknowledgment

I would like to sincerely express my deepest gratitude to the CNRS, the Archéorient, and the Université Lumière Lyon 2 for their invaluable support and collaboration in facilitating this research. Their encouragement and commitment to advancing scientific inquiry have played a pivotal role in the progress of this work. In particular, I am profoundly grateful to the Institut d’études avancéesCollegium de Lyon,  which, beside Archéorient, generously hosted me and provided an ideal environment and resources for conducting this research.

Selected References

Amiet, P. (1976). Les Antiquités du Luristan: Collection David-Weill. Paris: De Boccard.

Haerinck, E. (1988). The Iron Age in Luristan: New perspectives on chronology and cultural development. Iranica Antiqua, 23, 115–145.

Moorey, P. R. S. (1971). Catalogue of the Ancient Persian Bronzes in the Ashmolean Museum. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Moorey, P. R. S. (1974). Ancient Persian Bronzes in the Adam Collection. London: Faber and Faber.

Muscarella, O. W. (1988). Bronze and Iron: Ancient Near Eastern Artifacts in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Overlaet, B. (2005). Luristan bronzes: New evidence on context and provenance. Iranica Antiqua, 40, 9–16.

Porada, E. (1964). Ancient Near Eastern Art in Context. New York: Columbia University Press.

Porada, E. (1969). Divine and human figures in Luristan iconography. Iranica Antiqua, 9, 75–91.

Potratz, H. G. (1966). Die Bronzekunst von Luristan und ihre Stellung im vorderasiatischen Raum. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

Przeworski, S. (1940). Luristān bronzes in the collection of Mr. Frank Savery, British Consul-General at Warsaw. Archaeologia, 88, 229–269.

Schmidt, E. F., van Loon, M. N., & Curvers, H. H. (1989). The Holmes Expeditions to Luristan. Chicago, IL: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.

L’auteur

Zahra Kouzehgari est spécialiste de l’archéologie des armes, des guerres et des sociétés de l’âge du bronze récent et de l’âge du fer en Iran. Membre associée de l’UMR 5133-Archéorient, Lyon.

 


OpenEdition vous propose de citer ce billet de la manière suivante :
Zahra Kouzeghari (24 janvier 2025). Women in Combat: “Mistress of Animals” in Luristan Iconography. ArchéOrient - Le Blog. Consulté le 8 février 2025 à l’adresse https://doi.org/10.58079/135lr


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  1. 1 février 2025

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